A number of nonmonotonic reasoning formalisms have been introduced to model the set of beliefs of an agent. These include the extensions of a default logic, the stable models of a general logic program, and the extensions of a truth maintenance system among others. In [13] and [16], the authors introduced nonmonotomic rule systems as a nonlogical generalization of all essential features of such formulisms so that theorems applying to all could be proven once and for all. In this paper, (...) we extend Rieter's normal default theories, which have a number of the nice properties which make them a desirable context for belief revision, to the setting of nonmonotonic rule systems. Reiter defined a default theory to be normal if all the rules of the default theory satisfied a simple syntatic condition. However, this simple syntatic condition has no obvious analogue in the setting of nonmonotonic rule systems. Nevertheless, an analysis of the proofs of the main results on normal default theories reveals that the proofs do not rely on the particular syntactic form of the rules but rather on the fact that all rules have a certain consistency property. This led us to extend the notion of normal default theories with respect to a general consistency property. This extended notion of normal default theories, which we call Forward Chaining normal , is easily lifted to nonmonotomic rule systems and hence applies to general logic programs and truth maintenance. (shrink)

The article provides an analysis of the European Court of Human Rights judgments in the case of Lautsi v. Italy (application no. 30814/06), also known as the Italian crucifix case. The applicant claimed that displaying crucifixes in the Italian State-school classrooms attended by her children was contrary to the principle of secularism, by which she wished to bring up her children, and therefore infringed her right to ensure their education and teaching in conformity with her religious and philosophical convictions, and (...) also breached her freedom of conviction and religion, as protected by Article 9 of the Convention. In its judgment of November 3, 2009, the seven-judge Chamber declared that there had been a violation of Article 2 (right to education) of Protocol No. 1 of the European Convention on Human Rights taken together with Article 9 (freedom of thought, conscience, and religion) of the Convention. The judgment was given unanimously and none of the judges appended a separate opinion. The Italian Government asked for the case to be referred to the Grand Chamber by virtue of Article 43 of the Convention. In the judgment of the Grand Chamber, delivered on March 18, 2011, the Court held, by fifteen votes to two (and with separate opinions of six judges), that there had been no violation of Protocol No. 1 and no violation of the Convention itself. The analysis in the article is focused on selected principal factors determining the Court's decision. It shows that the proposal for the Court to recognize secular convictions as those protected by Article 2 of Protocol No. 1 or Article 9 of the Convention has no sufficient basis in the Convention itself and in earlier Court's case-law and, even, may be considered as promotion of religious intolerance, threatening the freedom to publicly manifest a religion or belief, as guaranteed by Article 9 of the Convention. -/- Opracowanie zawiera analizę wyroków Europejskiego Trybunału, które zapadły w sprawie Soile Lautsi (app. 30814/06), zwaną „włoska sprawa krzyża” (Italian Crucifix Case). W sprawie tej skarżąca zarzucała, że okazywanie znaku krzyża w klasach włoskich szkół państwowych, do których uczęszczały jej dzieci, jest sprzeczne z zasadą sekularyzmu, zgodnie z którą chciała ona wychować swoje dzieci i dlatego stanowi naruszenie jej prawa do wychowania i nauczania zgodnego z jej religijnymi i filozoficznymi (moralnymi) przekonaniami, oraz stanowi naruszenie wolności religijnej, gwarantowanej art. 9 Konwencji. W wyroku siedmioosobowej izby ogłoszonym 3 listopada 2009 r. izba uznała naruszenie art. 2 (Prawo do nauki) Protokołu dodatkowego nr 1 do Konwencji o ochronie praw człowieka i podstawowych wolności w powiązaniu z art. 9 (Wolność myśli, sumienia i wyznania) Konwencji. Wyrok zapadł jednomyślnie i żaden z sędziów nie dołączył do wyroku swoich uwag. Rząd Włoch złożył wniosek w trybie przewidzianym art. 43 Konwencji o przekazanie sprawy do Wielkiej Izby. W wyroku Wielkiej Izby ogłoszonym 18 marca 2011 r. Trybunał uznał zdecydowaną większością głosów – 15 za wobec 2 przeciw (sześciu sędziów dołączyło swoje uwagi), że nie doszło do naruszenia ani Protokołu nr 1, ani samej Konwencji. Analizy koncentrują się na wybranych zagadnieniach, kluczowych dla argumentacji Trybunału. Analizy te pokazują, że postulowanie przez izbę uznania za prawo podmiotowe radykalnie pojętej negatywnej wolności religijnej, oraz postulowanie - tak przez izbę, jak i przez Wielką Izbę - ochrony przekonań sekularystycznych jako przekonań chronionych art. 2 Protokołu dodatkowego nr 1 lub art. 9 Konwencji, nie posiada należytego uzasadnienia ani w samej Konwencji, ani w dotychczasowym orzecznictwie Trybunału, a co więcej – może być uznane za propagowanie nietolerancji religijnej, godzącej przede wszystkim chronioną art. 9 Konwencji wolność publicznego uzewnętrzniania przekonań religijnych i filozoficznych. (shrink)

This article first of all attempts to assess the proposals of 2006–2007 to amend Poland’s Constitution, aimed mostly at strengthening constitutional protection of unborn human life. Parliamentary work on this proposal begins with the submission of the Deputy’s bill on amendment of the Constitution, published in the Sejm Paper No. 993 of September 5, 2006, and ends with a series of votes at the 39th sitting of the Sejm of the fifth term of office, held on April 13, 2007, on (...) which it was decided not to adopt any amendment. In the course of the legislative process, several modifi cation were offered not only to Article 38 concerning protection of life, but also to Article 30 dealing with dignity as a source of rights. Each of these proposals had drawbacks, including inter alia: the lack of a definite period of protection or entitlement to dignity, resulting in the decreased protection in relation to issues concerning euthanasia; the application of new categories granting a specific status to unborn human life; specifying the standards for protection by means of legislative acts ranking lower than a constitution, resulting in the transfer of life protection into the sphere of regulation of ordinary legislation. The most conducive for strengthening of the protection of unborn human life, even if not free of imperfections, was an amendment of Article 30 proposed by the Committee in the following wording: “The inherent and inalienable dignity, conferred on the person from the moment of conception, shall be a source of freedoms and rights of persons and citizens. It shall be inviolable; the respect and protection thereof shall be the obligation of public authorities.” From the rejection of the proposals it is diffi cult to draw conclusions that are vital for interpretation of the existing provisions. However, a conclusion that the intention of the authors of the constitution was not to strengthen the constitutional protection of life is not legitimate, mostly because of their doubts about formal correctness of the proposed amendments (when deciding to reject them), particularly the doubts about legal consequences of their adoption. -/- Streszczenie Zasadniczym celem opracowania jest próba całościowej oceny propozycji nowelizacji Konstytucji RP mającej miejsce w latach 2006-2007, zmierzającej przede wszystkim do wzmocnienia konstytucyjnej ochrony życia człowieka przed narodzeniem. Prace parlamentarne nad analizowaną nowelizacją otwiera poselski projekt ustawy o zmianie Konstytucji zawarty w druku sejmowym 993 z dnia 5 września 2006 (projekt wpłynął do Sejmu 7 września); zamyka seria głosowań na 39 posiedzeniu Sejmu V kadencji, dnia 13 kwietnia 2007 roku; głosowań, które przesądziły o niewprowadzeniu żadnych zmian. W trakcie procesu legislacyjnego proponowano szereg formuł, zmieniających nie tylko art. 38 dotyczący ochrony życia, ale także art. 30, który dotyczy godności jako źródła praw. W zasadzie wszystkie zgłoszone propozycje posiadały wady, wśród których najważniejsze to: brak domknięcia okresu ochrony lub przysługiwania godności, skutkujący obniżeniem ochrony w kwestiach związanych z eutanazją; stosowanie nowych kategorii, prowadzące do nadania specyficznego statusu człowiekowi przed narodzeniem; określanie standardu ochrony za pośrednictwem aktów o randze niższej od konstytucji, prowadzące do przesunięcia ochrony życia przed narodzeniem w sferę ustawodawstwa zwykłego. Z punktu widzenia celu, jakim było wzmocnienie konstytucyjnej ochrony życia człowieka przed narodzeniem i wzmocnienie jego pozycji prawnej, najlepsza, choć nie pozbawiona usterek, była zaproponowana przez Komisję zmiana brzmienia art. 30 prowadząca do formuły: „Źródłem wolności i praw człowieka i obywatela jest przyrodzona i niezbywalna godność człowieka, przynależna mu od chwili poczęcia. Jest ona nienaruszalna, a jej poszanowanie i ochrona jest obowiązkiem władz publicznych.”. Na podstawie odrzucenia propozycji zmian trudno wyciągać wnioski istotne dla interpretacji aktualnie obowiązujących przepisów; wniosek, że ustrojodawca nie chciał wzmocnienia konstytucyjnej ochrony życie nie jest prawomocny, przede wszystkim ze względu na – istotne w procesie podejmowania decyzji o odrzuceniu propozycji zmian – wątpliwości, co do formalnej poprawności formułowanych propozycji, w tym wątpliwości co do konsekwencji prawnych ich przyjęcia. (shrink)

Artykuł stanowi zrekonstruowany życiorys jednego z wybitnych Rzymian o imieniu M. V. Maximianus, który wsławił się licznymi bohaterskimi czynami w okresie tzw. wojen markomańskich. Podstawą dla dokonania tej rekonstrukcji były dwa źródła o kapitalnym znaczeniu, oba mające postać inskrypcji. Pierwszą z tych inskrypcji odkryto w dzisiejszym słowackim Trenczynie, drugą w Zanie na terenie Algierii. Co istotne ich treść wzajemnie się wzbogaca i uzupełnia. Pretekstem do podjęcia tematu była dawno odbyta rozmowa autora z Jubilatem, w której obaj zastanawiali się nad autentycznością (...) kreowanej przez Russella Crove postaci Maximusa bohatera filmu „Gladiator”, który w artykule został skonfrontowany z postacią wymienionego wyżej historycznego Maximianusa. (shrink)

The monograph is aimed at an analysis of the reasons for theory change in science. The writer develops a model of theory change according to which the origins of scientific revolutions lie not in a clash of fundamental theories with facts, but of ‘old’ fundamental theories with each other.

It is human nature to try to recognize patterns and to make sense of that which we observe. Unfortunately, our intuition is often wrong, and so there is a need to impose some objectivity on the methods by which observations are converted into knowledge. One definition of biostatistics could be precisely this, the rigorous and objective conversion of medical and/or biological observations into knowledge. Both consumers of biostatistical principles and biostatisticians themselves vary in the extent to which they recognize the (...) need to continue the improvement. Some may not recognize the need for (some or all of) the methods that have already been developed; others may accept these as they find them completely sufficient; still others recognize both the value and the shortcomings of these methods, and seek to develop even better methods to ensure that future medical conclusions are less subject to biases than current ones are. (shrink)

This dissertation seeks to contribute to research in the philosophy of social science. The study focuses upon select epistemological and ontological aspects of Hannah Arendt’s work from which methodological implications are drawn pertaining to sociology. Arendt, although critical of the sociology of her time, has become increasingly cited and influential for emerging sociological research and this study seeks to contribute to this by focusing upon the problem of novelty. The aim is to explore the philosophical and methodological implications of novelty (...) for social science by working through three case studies that are theoretically pivotal for social science—action, the ‘social’, and the self—in terms of novelty as expressed in Arendt’s writing. Arendt is critical of methodology and epistemology, aiming to draw her readers to ontological concerns outlined from her preoccupation with the 'world' and social reality. In this aim, Arendt seeks to distance herself from social sciences that she claims ignore human novelty in favour of reading social regularities, tendencies and similarities. Despite her disdain for method, Arendt suggests a anti-methodological 'method' (outlined in an overlooked footnote) for keeping trained upon and for dealing with novel, anomalous events. In the seed of this method lies a unique opportunity for social science to reassess and extend its methods, addressing this oversight and in so doing bring to light the novel social object as a legitimate subject of social research. (shrink)

This book is a collection of Rush Rhees' recent articles on Wittgenstein along with a record of Wittgenstein's comments on continuity made in private conversations in 1938. The first part of the book is on the Tractatus. It begins with a review of Anscombe's Introduction of which Rhees generally approves and then goes on to discuss the "picture theory" and language's capacity to get hold of reality. Rhees argues against Maslow that elementary statements are more than psychological phenomena but must (...) be spoken of in a purely formal sense. Commenting on Black's Companion he argues that Wittgenstein did not have in mind any ontological implications of logic when he was working on the Tractatus. Rhees uses his critique of Pitcher's Philosophy of Wittgenstein and an article on that philosophy to form the transition to the discussion of the later Wittgenstein. He insists that Wittgenstein taught more a method of seeing the depth of certain problems than a set of solutions to those problems. He introduces the theme of "publicness" by arguing that language involves the ability to "say something" and must thus involve publicity. In his article on "Wittgenstein's Builders" he argues that this ability to say something rests on the interrelation of language games and the unity of a form of life. Using this as a basis, he speaks of the Wittgensteinean approach to ethics as one of studying the way of saying something ethically in a certain language game rather than one of studying ethics in general. The essay on continuity begins with a discussion of the dependence of mathematical language on everyday language for meaning. Here Wittgenstein argues that mathematical language derives its sense from experiential language and not from eternal and immutable objects. He discusses the mathematical notion of continuity with an eye to the limits of its sense and shows that its sense is limited by ordinary notions of space and continuity and tests relating to them. This book is worth reading for both the presentation of basic approaches to understanding Wittgenstein and for the record of Wittgenstein's remarks on continuity which are unavailable elsewhere.--J. V. W. (shrink)

One of Anchor books, new Problems in Philosophy Series, this slim and simple volume gives a clear yet comprehensive account of the mind-body problem and its various solutions. Campbell brings to light the assumptions which lead to the mind-body problem, and examines each in terms of the evidence for it and the way it is handled in some of the solutions to the problem. He then formulates the basic mind-body problem as an inconsistent tetrad and examines the evidence upon which (...) each of the four propositions has been accepted at one time or another. After this preliminary study, Campbell examines two Dualisms and their solutions, the Behaviorist 'solution' or dissolution, and different forms of a Causal Theory of the Mind, including Central State Materialism and what he calls a 'new Epiphenomenalism'. In his examination of these solutions to the problem, Campbell always states both the reasons for accepting it and the problems that the solution itself raises. Not intended for a sophisticated audience, this lucid account will provide the beginner with a solid basis for further studies in this central problem. With this in mind, the author has included an extensive bibliography for the beginning student.--W. de V. (shrink)

Subtitled "Rejections of Cartesian Dualism" this collection of essays traces through western Philosophy the strong but often overlooked idea that the body and the mind are not two different kinds of entity somehow reconciled in man, but rather a unity that is man. The editor's introduction sets forth Aristotle's ideas, concentrating on the dictum that it is the same man that thinks and runs. Spicker also treats Descartes' view, and the view of the Cartesians, ably separating the two when necessary. (...) The rest of the book is basically arranged chronologically, starting with extracts from Spinoza's Ethics, an essay on these extracts by Hans Jonas, and then moving through Julien de la Mettrie and two short essays by Kant. The second part of the book contains interesting essays on the human body by John Dewey, Douglas Long, and B. A. O. Williams, all defending the essential unity of body and soul. The third and last section of the book is itself divided into two parts, the first of which, entitled "Philosophy of Embodiment" contains four extracts from the works of prominent phenomenologists, Max Scheler, Gabriel Marcel, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty. These essays all center around the necessity of a concept of the "lived body" to the understanding of man's being-in-the-world. In the last section, the quality of the essays drops, although it is delightfully leavened by a witty essay by Richard Griffith on the foot. This section contains essays on particular parts of the human body, such as sight and the upright posture, by Herbert Plügge, Hans Jonas, and Erwin W. Straus. There is a selected bibliography for those who are captured by this basic thread of western thought.--W. A. de V. (shrink)

Over the last decades, it has become evident that highly complex networks of regulators govern post‐transcriptional regulation of gene expression. A novel class of Argonaute (Ago)‐associated RNA molecules, the agotrons, was recently shown to function in a Drosha‐ and Dicer‐independent manner, hence bypassing the maturation steps required for canonical microRNA (miRNA) biogenesis. Agotrons are found in most mammals and associate with Ago as ∼100 nucleotide (nt) long RNA species. Here, we speculate on the functional and biological relevance of agotrons: (i) (...) agotrons could serve as non‐promiscuous miRNA‐like regulators with reduced off‐targeting or (ii) agotrons could encompass other putative functions, such as protecting Ago proteins from taking up aberrant short RNAs or by rescuing and stabilizing otherwise unloaded Ago‐proteins from degradation. Collectively, agotrons have emerged as a novel class of interesting non‐coding RNA molecules, but their full functional potential and biological impact still remain to be disclosed. (shrink)

An important argument in favour of recognising the cultural relativism and against universality of dignity and human rights, is the claim that the concept of dignity is a genuinely modern one. An analysis of a passage from the Demiurge’s speech in Timaeus reveals that Plato devoted time to reflecting on the question of what determines the qualitative difference between certain beings (gods and human being) and the world of things, and what forms the basis for the special treatment of these (...) beings – issues that using the language of today can be described reasonably as dignity. The attributes of this form of dignity seem to overlap with the nature of dignity as we know it today. Moreover, Plato proposes a response both to the question of what dignity is like, as well as the question of what dignity is. It is existential perfection, rooted in a perfect manner of existence, based on a specific internal unity of being. Dignity is therefore primordial in regard to particular features and independent of their acquisition or loss. Plato’s approach allows him to postulate that people be treated as ends in themselves; an approach therefore that prohibits the treatment of people as objects. Both the state and law are ultimately subordinated to the good of the individual, rather than the individual to the good of the state. -/- Istotny argument na rzecz relatywizmu kulturowego i przeciwko powszechności godności i wynikających z niej praw człowieka, oparty jest na poglądzie, że godność uznana została dopiero w czasach nowożytnych. Analiza fragmentu mowy Demiurga z Platońskiego dialogu Timajos ujawnia, że Platon rozwinął refleksję nad czymś, co stanowi o jakościowej różnicy między pewnymi istotami (bogami i ludźmi) a światem rzeczy, i co jest podstawą szczególnego traktowania tych istot, a co językiem współczesnym zasadnie można określić jako godność. Zbieżna jest charakterystyka tej godności z charakterystyką przyjmowaną współcześnie. Co więcej, Platon daje propozycję odpowiedzi nie tylko na pytanie, jaka jest godność, ale także na pytanie, czym jest godność. Jest ona doskonałością egzystencjalną, ugruntowanym w szczególnie doskonałym sposobie istnienia, opartym na szczególnej wewnętrznej jedności bytu. Jako doskonałość istnienia ogarnia ona cały byt, wszystkie jego cechy; jest nieoddzielalna od bytu (jest przyrodzona i niezbywalna). Jako pierwotna wobec partykularnych cech, jest niezależna od ich nabywania lub utraty. Platońskie ujęcie pozwala w oparciu o ujęcie godności formułować postulaty zbieżne z formułowanymi dziś dyrektywami nakazującymi traktować osoby jako cele same w sobie i zakazującymi traktowania osób w sposób czysto instrumentalny, przedmiotowy. Okazuje się, że – zdaniem Platona – jednostki nie wolno traktować czysto instrumentalnie dla dobra państwa; zarówno państwo, jak i prawo są podporządkowane dobru jednostki. (shrink)

Calpains are a family of calcium‐dependent thiol‐proteases which are proposed to be involved in many physiological processes as well as pathological conditions. Calpains are likely to be involved in processing of numerous enzymes and cytoskeletal components, thereby linking their activity to a variety of intracellular events. Although widely studied, the precise mechanism(s) involved in calpain activation and activity in vivo remain poorly understood. Initial studies suggested that calpain exists primarily as an inactive proenzyme that required autolytic cleavage for activation. It (...) was also hypothesized that calpain associated with membrane phospholipids, serving to increase calcium sensitivity, facilitating autolytic conversion and thus activating the enzyme. These hypotheses, however, have not been universally accepted and there is increasing evidence that intact, non‐autolyzed calpain is the physiologically active calpain form. (shrink)

Artykuł poświęcony jest problemowi możliwości analizy faktów istnienia. Fakty istnienia są specyficznymi stanami rzeczy. Stany rzeczy są ontycznymi odpowiednikami sądów. Fakty istnienia są korelatami sądów egzystencjalnych. Stany rzeczy różne od faktów istnienia dadzą się analizować jako złożenia z prostszych składników, np. podmiotu i własności. Są filozofowie, którzy uważają, że w analogiczny sposób da się analizować fakty istnienia. Według tej analizy polegają one na tym, że rzeczy posiadają istnienie, ale rozumiane w sensie zasady istnienia czy też aktu istnienia — niesamodzielnego składnika (...) rzeczy. Argumentuję przeciwko możliwości takiej analizy. Jeśli jest ona konsekwentnie przeprowadzona, to wiedzie do tezy, że istnienie-zasada jest całkiem zewnętrzne wobec rzeczy. Poza tym pokazuję, że niesamodzielność istnienia-zasady blokuje przypisywaną jej funkcję urealniania. Fakt istnienia uznaję za nieanalizowalny i w związku z tym odrzucam sensowność pytania o realną różnice między istotą a istnieniem. (shrink)

Studie se věnuje dialogu Anselma z Canterbury De grammatico. Tento spis byl samotným autorem označen jako úvod do dialektiky. V dobové dialektice zastával klíčové místo Aristotelův spis Kategorie. Tento článek se proto pokouší interpretovat Anselmův dialog jako určitou pedagogicky koncipovanou podobu komentáře k Aristotelovým Kategoriím. V návaznosti na Anselmův spis jsou postupně představeny jednotlivé teze z Aristotelových Kategorií (jak tzv. antepredicamenta, tak pojednání o substanci, kvalitě a částečně i vlastnictví) a způsob, jakým s nimi Anselm pracoval.

Tekst dotyczy zaproponowanej przez Arthura Kaufmanna koncepcji prawa do sprzeciwu (wobec władzy - wobec niesprawiedliwych ustaw) "w drobnej monecie". Koncepcja ta stanowi punkt wyjścia do refleksji nad formułą Radbrucha (nad czymś, co określam mianem "ciemnej strony" formuły Radbrucha), nad możliwością modyfikacji tej formuły i nad rozproszoną kontrolą konstytucyjności jako sposobem realizacji prawa do sprzeciwu "w drobnej monecie".

In my paper I review the main strategies adopted by two leading schools in cognitive science, symbolic artificial intelligence (AI) and connectionism, in modeling time-dependent phenomena such as learning. In particular, I briefly mention shortcomings of non-monotonic logic approach that dominates symbolic AI. I also discuss the problems that beset the recurrent networks approach advocated by connectionists (e.g., S. Grossberg) and philosophers (e.g., P. Churchland), who focus their attention on oscillatory behavior of such networks. I point out that neither approach (...) adequately captures essential features of the dynamics of human temporal awareness. Finally, I develop certain ideas borrowed from neurophysiologists (e.g., W. Freeman) and system theorists and describe the brain-mind, the entity that is capable of producing temporal awareness, as a self-organizing system that exhibits chaotic dynamics and generates a dynamic structure that resembles the chaotic hierarchy o Rossler. (shrink)

We shall look for the essence of the contemporary crisis: whether it is only the economic crisis which results in the drop of income, production, demand, crash on the stock exchange and the spectre of bankruptcy of whole states, or whether the economic phenomena originate in the sphere of human spirit and moral values, acquired insufficiently or simply questioned. We put forward a thesis that the economic crisis has its source in the sphere of spirit. Denying the natural law and (...) God’s law included in the Ten Commandments does not make a man happy but introduces divisions, social conflicts and exploitation. For that reason the moral renewal of individuals and societies, showing respect for the dignity of a human being and his/her natural rights must go along with reasonable political and economic actions for the sake of solving the contemporary ‘social issue’. Without moral renewal any other solutions, sooner or later shall turn against a man and cause irreparable damages. (shrink)

The problem of the development of a human person and the whole mankind has a significant place in the post Vaticanum Secundum social teaching of the Catholic church. This year’s anniversary of two social encyclicals: Paul VI’s Populorum progressio (1967) and John Paul II’s Sollicitudo rei socialis (1987) indicates the need of undertaking theological and anthropological reflection upon the process of development. The Catholic social teaching placing a human person in the center of all social, political and economic processes evaluates (...) the quality of development from the perspective of respecting human dignity and rights. Although the development issues have originated from social teaching of local churches of Africa and Latin America, thanks to the social encyclicals it took on a global dimension. The social teaching of the Catholic church by indicating the need of the integral development of a human person and the whole mankind, points out the problems of material, spiritual poverty and violation of human rights. Therefore, the teaching about development is an integral element of the preferential option for the poor in the ministry of the Catholic church. (shrink)

Utożsamienie atomu z miarą powoduje włączenie powyższej kategorii, jak i całego systemu myśli Demokryta, do zupełnie innej sieci pojęć i związków symbolicznych funkcjonujących w filozofii greckiej. Gdy atom staje się miarą, to z definicji jest niepodzielną jednością w stosunku do wielkości mierzonych. Ujęcie to prowadzi do odrzucenia mechanistycznej interpretacji atomizmu Demokryta. Ruch atomów jako miar wynika z ich podobieństwa lub niewspółmierności, a nie ze wzajemnych mechanicznie rozumianych zderzeń. Nic nie powstaje i nie ginie, nie dlatego, że istnieje metafizyczna różnica pomiędzy (...) bytem a nicością, ale dlatego, że każda zmiana powinna być odnoszona do miar, które ją określają. Róż nica pomiędzy pełnią a pustką jest więc względna, co potwierdzają przekazy o atomach tak wielkich jak kosmos oraz twierdzenie, że pełnia nie bardziej istnieje niż pustka. Sama ta względność byłaby efektem użycia zasady izonomii do podstaw samego systemu Demokryta. A sama ta zasada byłaby jedynie konsekwencją tożsamości atomów z miarami. Z tej perspektywy w sposób pełniejszy rozumie się twierdzenie Demokryta, że atomy same w sobie nie mają właściwości. Nawet tzw. właściwości pierwotnych znanych z filozofii mechanistycznej. Trzeba uznać, że wszystkie jakości uzyskują jedynie poprzez odniesienie do określonych miar-atomów. Potwierdzeniem tego, że myśl Demokryta krążyła wokół pojęcia miary, jest cała jego myśl etyczna oparta na umiarze jako środku pomiędzy niedomiarem a nadmiarem. (shrink)

The US neutrino community gathered at the Workshop on the Intermediate Neutrino Program at Brookhaven National Laboratory February 4-6, 2015 to explore opportunities in neutrino physics over the next five to ten years. Scientists from particle, astroparticle and nuclear physics participated in the workshop. The workshop examined promising opportunities for neutrino physics in the intermediate term, including possible new small to mid-scale experiments, US contributions to large experiments, upgrades to existing experiments, R&D plans and theory. The workshop was organized into (...) two sets of parallel working group sessions, divided by physics topics and technology. Physics working groups covered topics on Sterile Neutrinos, Neutrino Mixing, Neutrino Interactions, Neutrino Properties and Astrophysical Neutrinos. Technology sessions were organized into Theory, Short-Baseline Accelerator Neutrinos, Reactor Neutrinos, Detector R&D and Source, Cyclotron and Meson Decay at Rest sessions.This report summarizes discussion and conclusions from the workshop. (shrink)

This is the first book to offer the best essays, articles, and speeches on ethics and intelligence that demonstrate the complex moral dilemmas in intelligence collection, analysis, and operations. Some are recently declassified and never before published, and all are written by authors whose backgrounds are as varied as their insights, including Robert M. Gates, former Director of the Central Intelligence Agency; John P. Langan, the Joseph Cardinal Bernardin Professor of Catholic Social Thought at the Kennedy Institute of Ethics, Georgetown (...) University; and Loch K. Johnson, Regents Professor of Political Science at the University of Georgia and recipient of the Owens Award for contributions to the understanding of U.S. intelligence activities. Creating the foundation for the study of ethics and intelligence by filling in the gap between warfare and philosophy, this is a valuable collection of literature for building an ethical code that is not dependent on any specific agency, department, or country. (shrink)

The main aim of this article is to prove that Wittgenstein's early philosophy considers two perspectives: the first one from the view of necessary logic and the second one from the view of contingent application of logic in the natural language. The application of logic is the matter of decisions outside the logical necessity - it is arbitrary and thus it can not be anticipated by logic and can not be considered by logical notation (concept-script). According to Wittgenstein 'logic must (...) take care of itself' and only the exclusion of the contingency from the logical notation let maintain the autonomy of logic. (shrink)

This book is a translation of W.V. Quine's Kant Lectures, given as a series at Stanford University in 1980. It provide a short and useful summary of Quine's philosophy. There are four lectures altogether: I. Prolegomena: Mind and its Place in Nature; II. Endolegomena: From Ostension to Quantification; III. Endolegomena loipa: The forked animal; and IV. Epilegomena: What's It all About? The Kant Lectures have been published to date only in Italian and German translation. The present book is filled out (...) with the translator's critical Introduction, "The esoteric Quine?" a bibliography based on Quine's sources, and an Index for the volume. (shrink)

Poniższa dyskusja odbyła siȩ we wrześniu 2018 w Szkole Głównej Handlowej w Warszawie. Skupiła zarówno badaczy problematyki polityki senioralnej, ekspertów, analityków. Dyskusjȩ moderował i zaplanował Andrzej Klimczuk, zwi¸a}zany z SGH, natomiast zaproszenie do dyskusji przyjȩli: Barbara Szatur-Jaworska, polityk społeczny i gerontolog z Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Paweł Kubicki, ekonomista, SGH, Marek Niezabitowski, socjolog z Politechniki Śl¸a}skiej, Ryszard Majer, polityk społeczny, Agnieszka Cieśla, architektka i urbanistka, Politechnika Warszawska, Marzena Rudnicka, fundatorka oraz prezeska Krajowego Instytutu Gospodarki Senioralnej. Paneliści podczas dyskusji analizowali nastȩpuj¸a}ce zagadnienia: (...) I. pocz¸a}tki polityki senioralnej, jej definiowanie, dokumenty strategiczne państwa, II. rola samorz¸a}dów w animowaniu działań w obrȩbie polityki senioralnej oraz organizacji pozarz¸a}dowych, III. powstanie i rola ustawy o seniorach, IV. zróżnicowanie środowiska osób w wieku senioralnym, V. działania w innych krajach w obrȩbie polityki senioralnej, VI. zmiany w świadomości społecznej, ewolucja postaw wobec osób starszych, starości, starzenia siȩ, VII. rynek produktów i usług dla seniorów, VIII. aktywność seniorów, formalna i nieformalna, infrastruktura aktywności, IX. mieszkalnictwo dla osób starszych i starzej¸a}cej siȩ ludności X. rola państwa i samorz¸adu w polityce senioralnej, dialog z władz¸a, partnerstwo publiczno-prywatne, XI. wyzwania i kierunki rozwoju polityki senioralnej, XII. deficyt usług opiekuńczych XIII. polityka senioralna i emerytalna, XIV. konwergencja i dywergencja w polityce senioralnej. ** The following discussion took place in September 2018 at the Warsaw School of Economics. It focused on both senior politics, experts, and analysts. The discussion was moderated and planned by Andrzej Klimczuk, associated with the Warsaw School of Economics, and invited to the discussion: Barbara Szatur-Jaworska, social politician and gerontologist from the University of Warsaw, Paweł Kubicki, economist, Warsaw School of Economics, Marek Niezabitowski, sociologist from the Silesian University of Technology, Ryszard Majer, social politician, Agnieszka Cieśla, architect and urban planner, Warsaw University of Technology, Marzena Rudnicka, founder and president of the National Institute of Senior Management. Panelists during the discussion analyzed the following issues: I. Beginnings of the senior policy, its definition, strategic documents of the state, II. The role of local governments in animating activities within the framework of senior policy and non-governmental organizations, III. Creation and role of the law on seniors, IV. Diversification of the environment of seniors, V. Activities in other countries within the framework of the senior policy, VI. Changes in social awareness, the evolution of attitudes towards older people, old age, ageing, VII. The market for products and services for seniors, VIII. Seniors’ activity, formal and informal, activity infrastructure, IX. Housing for older people and ageing population X. The role of the state and self-government in the senior policy, dialogue with the authorities, public-private partnership, XI. Challenges and directions of development of the senior policy, XII. The deficit of care services, XIII. Senior and pension policy, XIV. Convergence and divergence in the senior policy. (shrink)

With his customary incisiveness, W. V. Quine presents logic as the product of two factors, truth and grammar--but argues against the doctrine that the logical truths are true because of grammar or language. Rather, in presenting a general theory of grammar and discussing the boundaries and possible extensions of logic, Quine argues that logic is not a mere matter of words.

The First International Workshop brings together researchers from the theoretical ends of the logic programming and artificial intelligence communities to discuss their mutual interests. Logic programming deals with the use of models of mathematical logic as a way of programming computers, where theoretical AI deals with abstract issues in modeling and representing human knowledge and beliefs. One common ground is nonmonotonic reasoning, a family of logics that includes room for the kinds of variations that can be found in human reasoning. (...) Topics covered: Stable Semantics. Default Logic. AutoEpistemic Logic. Truth Maintenance Systems. Implementation Issues. Diagnosis. Applications. Inheritance Reasoning. Logics of Belief. Inconsistency and Non-Monotonicity. (shrink)